Introduction
I would roll my eyes as my mom desperately tried to tame my fly aways before a soccer game. She would offer to braid them, or at least pull them back into a head band, but I would refuse. Out of stubbornness, I would rather attempt to see through my tangled hair than risk “trying too hard” to look good for a sports game. Every time she tried, my dad, sister and I would tell her “It’s not a fashion show”. So, I grew up looking down on my teammates who would roll their shorts three times, wear mascara and try to find the perfect sock length that made them look equal parts cool and cute. When I started watching professional sports, I decided quickly that I HATED Sydney Leroux, forward for the US women’s national soccer team in 2012, because she wore far too much makeup, she curled her hair and honestly was just frustratingly pretty while she played. I complained that she was attention-seeking and wished she would just play the sport. As I have grown up, I have come to love feminine expression in sports. Two things that subconsciously I thought did not go together, strength and femininity, presented in conjunction is something I now seek out. Megan Rapinoe dies her hair purple, Brazilian soccer player Marta wears red lipstick, and Sha’carri Richardson is the epitome of this badassery with her acrylic nails, makeup, hair dyed and styled, jewelry and lightning speed at every race.
My complicated relationship with gender performance in sports pushed me to research it further. I will be analyzing the policing of women’s bodies that occurs within female sports and how this contributes to gender performance in sports. I am interested in where this narrative comes from and to what extent it is a reflection of a patriarchal society that favors men and to what extent it is the athlete’s choice to exist in an either feminine- or masculine-presenting way. I will look at the realities of “choice” and how it differs between men and women as a result of misogyny meant to keep women inside gendered norms. I argue that women who participate in sports are stepping out of those norms. Lastly, I offer sports and strength in women as a sense of empowerment that could allow women to break free from misogynistic violence. Sports is a traditionally male-dominated field and female athletes undergo sexist scrutiny and policing of their bodies. Women who are strong and athletic pose a threat to the myth that the patriarchy depends on: All men can physically dominate all women.
Why This Matters
At first glance it may seem silly to give so much attention to women athletes and sports oppression, however how female athletes are treated bleeds into everyday life and perpetuates racist, homophobic, and sexist ideology. Professional sports also offer incredible potential to change the narrative of women’s abilities and treatment as it is one of the highest consumed entertainments worldwide (Ravat 61). If substantial change is made in this arena, it could then spread to other entertainment and become a reality. I am advocating for more than just equal pay for professional women athletes, but rather for all women and non-men to be physically liberated through sports and exercise. This work most logically starts at an elite level then ripples down as it is consumed so rapidly. Sports and especially women’s sports have never been apolitical, and we no longer should pretend it is or ever was. Who is given opportunities to play, who is being reported on, how they are reported, if they are celebrated and how they are celebrated, and much more are all politically charged questions. A woman who chooses to participate in sports in turn “serves to destabilize and renegotiate the racist heteropatriarchal basis of professional sports” (Ravat 68). Whether they know it going into it or not, they are deliberately going against the gendered norms meant to keep women meek, quiet, sensitive, and submissive. It is also important to remember that this physical liberation not only will benefit women but will also free men from inaccurate gender stereotypes. They will be free from being expected or forced to do physical labor and their masculinity would no longer be defined by how heavy they lift or how low their BMI is (Roth and Basow 257). Feminism is working to free all people from unfair and false gender norms and stereotypes, while women are the target, men are often in the crossfire. The LGBTQ+ and the BIPOC communities are often also stuck in this crossfire while also dodging their own unique oppression, working to change the narrative of what female bodies are capable of and reduce limitations, will do significant work to also liberate LGBTQ+ and BIPOC bodies that fall outside the “norm”.
Policing examples
Misogyny works to keep women in their place through many different policing methods. These include infantilizing, belittling, othering, and more. This can lead to violence such as sexual assault, harassment, and rape as well. These tools prevent women from stepping outside of roles traditionally assigned to women, such as wives, mothers, and homemakers. Since physical strength is not seen as an important part of these roles, strong women are often on the receiving end of misogyny. Female athletes are “continually being policed, fleshed out, destroyed, and reconstructed to denote what is considered both a female body and an athletic body” (Ravat 61). Another common theme of misogyny in women’s sports is symbolic annihilation or when lack of representation impacts the psyche and renders them invisible (Ravat 62).
Simone Biles, the most decorated gymnast of all time, is consistently belittled during competition. She is often referred to as “girl” or “little woman” due to her age and height (Ravat 65). Her success is often made less about her strength and athletic ability and more about her body’s size. She is also often called by her first name only, a common theme among female athletes. While initially this may not seem problematic and potentially could be Biles’ individual choice, or more generally a preference women have for less formal language. However, there is a hierarchical nature to this phenomenon. Men of color are the next most likely to be referred to by their first name only during a sporting event while white men are rarely ever (Jensen, Duncan and Messner 128). This is a more discreet belittling, but subconsciously continues to put women in their place.
Sexualizing and fetishizing female athletes is also extraordinarily common. There is large debate among athletes and organizations about the purpose of increasingly small uniforms for women’s sports. This was recently seen a few years ago when the Norwegian beach handball team was fined for not wearing bikinis. This extends to all sports though, as there has been numerous conversations around viewership increasing if the inseam decreases. While some athletes may not mind catering to the male gaze if it means more pay, these conversations are taking away from the accomplishments of women by ensuring female bodies exist only for male consumption. This not only restricts women’s “choice” but also enforces heteronormative culture. Media coverage for female athletes consistently reinforces that they are female first. Their physical attractiveness is put before their athletic feats (Buysse and Herbert 68). This is seen in the massive number of athletes who also model, as well as how they are photographed for sports-related content. Often these women are not seen as “competent, elite athletes” but rather sexy, feminine women (Buysse and Herbert 79). This leads to increased feminine performance while competing as well because there is more leeway given to strong women who still look the part of feminine. By doing their hair and nails and wearing make-up they can dodge some of the misogyny. However, in some ways those who comply are just perpetuating the narrative of women’s existence is solely for men.
These arguments begin crossing over into a gray area of what individual choice is if it cannot be removed from the influences of society. I will touch on this more later, but for now will demonstrate that if women choose to comply to the male gaze or not, either way they cannot do it with confidence. It is often encouraged in male sports to be confident. Muhammed Ali is quoted on multiple occasions calling himself pretty and Zlatan Ibrahimovic frequently comments on his perfection (both things that have nothing to do with athletic ability) (Ravat 68). This same grace is not given to confident women. Simone Biles was quoted saying “I am the best gymnast there is”, something that is factual and received tons of backlash on her cockiness (Ravat 63). This backlash is not unique to athletes. In the workplace self-confidence negatively impacts promotional opportunities and professional relationships (Ravat 62). Whether Sha’Carri Richardson breaks records in fake eyelashes or if Caitlin Clark lights up the court with no make-up on, they are both going to face ridicule for being too confident, a trait that in men is seen to set the elite apart. It is preferred if women shatter records quietly and humbly.
In coverage of female sports athletic ability is frequently explained away or hidden behind other aspects of the athlete, such as their age, families, or personal struggles. Megan Rapinoe’s age was the biggest talking point as she accepted the Golden boot in 2019. That same year, after the USWNT won their second straight World Cup, media articles were quick to move the focus to players celebrating with their partners and families (Ravat 66). While this can be a constructive conversation that empowers women to see that they can be a good mother and strong at the same time, it is currently being used as a distraction tactic. It shows women that if they are a good wife and mother first, then they can also be strong and athletic and worthy of celebration. It again pushes out heteronormative and patriarchal ideology of what a woman is good for. Women should be empowered to be strong as an end in itself, not because it won’t prevent a healthy pregnancy or get in the way of breast feeding. This is where sexualization also comes back into play, “because sports offer women the potential for reducing physical power imbalances on which patriarchy is founded and reified, one way to limit and deemphasize women’s physical power and capabilities is to associate female athleticism with female sex appeal” (Roth and Basow 252). In some sports, they choose to write this into the rules as is the case for cheerleading, dance, figure skating and gymnastics. Women’s success is also often attributed to luck where men are given credit or their skill and drive. Men often fail as a result of their opponents’ skill where women fail due to their individual shortcomings (Messner, Duncan and Jensen 130). No matter what the result is always the same—preventing women from realizing their physical potential.
Othering may be the most common tool used in sports to keep women down. Women’s teams are often marked as women’s while men’s are not gender marked (Jensen, Duncan and Messner 125). Examples of this is clearly seen during March Madness. If you were to have a conversation about the women’s tournament you HAVE to clearly state that, or it will be assumed that you are talking about men. Male sports are the default, the original and the superior version, while female sports are the lesser other. Gender neutral language is becoming more common in some instances such as player to player defense instead of man to man, however it will not work to fully switch, because it would only make female athletes and sports more invisible as male sports continue to be the default (Jensen, Duncan and Messner 126). Team names also reflect this as “lady” is often tacked to the front of a “masculine” team name, for example throughout my high school sports career I was a “Lady Bison” although little of what I did aligned with the traditional use and meaning of the term “lady”. Once again this is not exclusive to just sports, any position that is typically held by one gender is marked, for example male nurse, woman judge, woman doctor or male secretary (Jensen, Duncan and Messner 126).
This othering slowly is becoming more extreme to the point of sex testing. After the 2011 Olympics where Caster Semenya won the 800-meter race she was questioned heavily about her sex due to her androgynous appearance (Ravat 61). Ever since it has become increasingly common for a successful female athlete’s sex to be questioned. This has also led to debates about how fair it is for women with naturally higher testosterone levels to compete in women’s sports. This conversation is not happening in men’s sports because testosterone is masculine and the more of it, the better. Once again women are othered, too manly to be a woman but too womanly to be a man—an other. In recent years trans-woman athletes have been a large debate, however the basis of the argument is not new, and the outcome will always favor white, straight, cis-gendered men (Bozada-Deaz 58).
Patriarchy versus choice
An interesting element of the policing of female bodies through sports is attempting to distinguish between individual choice and the influence of the patriarchy. This is most easily seen in gender performance but can also go deeper into how women train and their belief of how easily they could gain muscle mass. I will first briefly describe the differences between sexism, misogyny, and the patriarchy as it pertains to female sports.
Sexism is the justification for the mistreatment of women. This is often that women are weaker and biologically inferior. In sports, the muscle gap is significantly emphasized, however in the last 15 years it has been closing (Jensen, Duncan and Messner 122). Sexism explains the muscle gap as being biological, when in reality it is socially constructed. While there is some truth to cis-gendered men being naturally stronger on average, it has been enhanced by policing efforts to keep women from gaining muscle or desiring more muscle. Society has accepted it as fact that women are weaker, shorter, smaller, less muscular, can lift less and are slower, when there is a large spectrum of abilities between both genders (Roth and Basow 245). Just as there is significant overlap between the tallest women and the shortest men, it is the same trend for the strongest women and weakest men, however since height is much more visible than strength this overlap is typically not talked about or acknowledged (Roth and Basow 248). This belief is ingrained in young kids as boys are held to a higher standard in physical education classes in everything except agility despite girls scoring higher overall on the tests. The lower standards instill a belief in young girls that they are less capable due to their sex (Roth and Basow 249). As women get older, they do not unlearn this. Many claim that it is harder for them to build muscle than men while simultaneously claiming that they hold back to avoid looking bulky (Roth and Basow 250). Sexism lays the foundation, while misogyny perpetuates it by punishing anyone who does not fit the norm or the trend.
In the previous section, I discussed policing or the misogyny that limits women’s potential. To build upon that I want to add the dangers of internalized misogyny (Pedersen and Kono 783). These include low self-esteem attributed to weight, body hair, acne and more. Interestingly, “watching one’s weight, exercising, shaving, and doing one’s hair and face are for the most part daily activities in which women seem to treat their bodies as objects” (Roth and Basow 249). For all athletes, this is a common thing to treat your body as an object, a means to an end to get the athletic results desired, however women face tremendous pressures to continue to maintain a feminine, desirable body at the same time. Bodies have large effects on your concept of self and self-esteem while also physically altering your brain chemistry if not properly taken care of (Proudfoot). It has also been studied that “men on low-calorie diets become passive, anxious, and emotional—all traits traditionally associated with femininity” proving that thinness not only produces “aesthetically appealing” results but also “feminine traits”—such as powerlessness (Roth and Basow 251). Lastly, the rape mystique is how the fear of rape controls women. Even if a woman has never experienced sexual assault of any kind or had any bad experiences with the men in their lives, they might still walk to their car with keys between their fingers (Roth and Basow 256). The rape mystique is further enhanced by women’s lack of faith in their ability to fight back. It is ingrained in them that they are weak, and it takes forever for women to build muscle. Women instead alter their lifestyles to avoid endangering themselves.
Lastly, patriarchy is the whole system that allows all of this to happen simultaneously. To demonstrate this, I will explain the history of the sports bra. It was invented in 1977, not even 50 years ago, before these women were binding their chests in leather and string and in extreme cases, Amazonians were known to cut off their breasts to improve their archery (Pownall 5). The Jogbra, was the first invented in response to the running craze of the 1970s. Women were excited to have a way to be active and socialize, but quickly realized that the traditional bra is not made for movement. Jogbra became the first women-owned sporting goods business in the United States (Pownall 5). By simply creating clothing that allowed for comfortable movement, women were liberated and less restricted. However, once it was sold to larger companies like Nike and Champion, they began instilling fear in women over the unaesthetic look of a uniboob to market many different designs to women (Pownall 11). So, not only did it take until recently for the sports bra to be created, but it quickly was turned into a marketing tool that created a new fear for women. The patriarchy adapts at every turn to keep the status quo from being disrupted. Women exercising more comfortably is the first step to physical liberation that poses a large threat to the system. Within this complex system it is nearly impossible to distinguish between free-will individual choice and influences from a corrupt system. It then becomes rather sticky to prescribe solutions to problems many people do not even understand are happening as they do not see how their actions are linked to oppressive acts. This raises the question, if it is constructive to draw attention to these oppressive forces, or is ignorance a sign of progress? Gender performance within sports is one of the most visible ways this manifest since, women who choose to compete in feminine-presenting attire may find it empowering while it subconsciously perpetuates the ideology that she is female first and upholds heteronormative culture as a strong woman might be mistaken for a lesbian if she does not properly perform her femininity and in turn sexuality.
The Reality of Choice
As mentioned before, “what people often think of as “free individual choices” are actually choices that are shaped by social contexts” (Bozada-Deaz 67). Choice is often not as free as we think it is. Everything we do has repercussions and is influenced by outsiders (Sen 6). One interesting example of this is Brandi Chastain ripping off her shirt in celebration of winning the 1999 World Cup. This was seen as the sports bra’s outing. After 22 years in the closet, Chastain’s act brought it to the limelight. She received lots of comments on the act, some empowered by the act, some sexualizing her, and others disgusted. Some critics argued that it changed women’s sports forever with “the promise of bodily displays made women’s athletics enticing to otherwise uninterested sports fans” (Pownall 14). The split-second decision Chastain made while celebrating becoming the champion of the world has made tremendous ripples in the sports world and beyond. Choice is so much more than individual free-will, especially if you are a member of a marginalized community because you are watched and policed at every turn.
Along with this, feminine performance is often created as a result of homophobia in the sports world. Women with muscles are often categorized as lesbians, and to avoid this fate they do their hair, nails and makeup to prevent being labeled or outted as a lesbian (Roth and Basow 253). What may feel like free choice is often a reflection of a society designed to favor a select few. Everyone else is left to do what they can to get ahead. For some this is a little extra mascara, for others their survival entails avoiding standing out at any costs.
A study was done to better understand how “team moms” came to be and why it has stuck for so long. This study nicely shows the reality of “choice” that women face in daily life. Youth sports only functions through hours of volunteering and it is no surprise that men often take the high profile, public role of coach while women do the invisible labor of “team mom”, organizing snack schedules, team parties, phone calling, collecting money for coaches and more (Bozada-Deaz 50). As they dug deeper, they realized a lot was going into this phenomenon that from the outside could be summed up with a statement like “women prefer that work, they choose it”. The reality of it is that women are socially conditioned into accepting this role through gender language and stereotypes. Coaches often recruit team moms at the beginning of the season by calling them. It becomes an extension of the labor divisions seen in the workplace and families (Bozada-Deaz 55). Choice becomes a tricky realm to navigate as it can never truly be removed from the influence of society. It also becomes increasingly difficult to make choices without worrying about the aftermath as seen with Biles’s confidence and Chastain’s celebration.
Physical Liberation
Sports and exercise for women can lead to physical liberation. Dismantling the myth that all men can overpower all women will crumble the foundation that the patriarchy is founded in. This will not be easy but can start with women owning their abilities, after years of being taught and conditioned to be meek, passive, and submissive. Confidence is a key tool of activism, especially within women’s sports (Ravat 64). This is something Megan Rapinoe has been doing for years. After the 2019 World Cup, she is quoted as saying, “I deserve everything”. On top of that she dies her hair purple, is loud, politically charged and unapologetically queer. While she receives backlash and hate often, she is fighting with confidence that cannot be torn down, a confidence that has won her accolades for decades (Ravat 65-66). While it may not be everyone’s cup of tea and in some cases may be detrimental to a woman’s success in their social and professional careers, adding self-confidence into a woman’s toolbox is the first step to physical liberation. Just as Carol Hay’s Panopticon metaphor shows that it does not have to be all men, for all women to fear them, it does not have to be all women, for men to give women their rightful place at the table. This is not a “reclamation of confidence, but a refusal to surrender the confidence in the first place” (Ravat 69). Women have been conditioned to leave their confidence at the door and resist praise, from now on, stop hanging it up with your coat.
Second to confidence is dismantling the belief that men are stronger than women. Women need to stop self-limiting when it comes to their own strength and safety. When strength is measured in comparison to muscle mass, women could leg press 110% of what men could (Roth and Basow 249). Recent research also indicates that female athletes compete with male athletes at a comparable level. For example, when height difference is accounted for in running speed, Florence Griffith Joyner is faster than Carl Lewis by a relative velocity of 0.28 heights per second. Similar studies were conducted with swimming and the same results were found (Roth and Basow 254). While this does not necessarily mean that all women are going to be able to outrun or fight off all men, it does completely dismantle the belief that women are weak and slow. If women take their newfound confidence and internalize these facts, they may be taken seriously in their social and professional lives.
Woman and non-men have so much to gain through physical liberations, “the intense association of masculinity with physical power as well as the male shame that stems from being beaten physically shows how much women have to gain from reaching their physical potential” (Roth and Basow 225). Sports has been attributed to women gaining confidence and a feeling of self-efficacy (Roth and Basow 255). If sports continue to be male-dominated and women are held back from their full potential, women are missing a valuable tool that is key to dismantling the patriarchy. Feminist activist often promotes nonviolent protest, however, “nonviolence is most effective when practiced by those who have the ability to be violent” (Roth and Basow 259). It is not enough to be nonviolent, instead they must learn violence, strength and self-defense before there is any choice to be nonviolent. Physically liberation gives women the chance to choose not to be violent. Sports is one way to teach women these valuable tools.
Conclusion
Female athletes face misogyny in their careers. Often, however, sports for women and non-men unlock their full potential to disrupt the status quo that is not designed to promote their success. The female body is constantly being policed and it is no different in sports. Women who are physically strong threaten the system, so they are punished for stepping outside of the norms. It can be difficult to distinguish between individual choice and patriarchal influence as they are not mutually exclusive which makes it hard to combat the issues that arise in female sports such as gender performance, sex appeal, and informal first-name commentating. Yet all of these have implications for viewers that reinforce the idea that these athletes are females first, feminine females at that.
That said, I still find Sha’Carri Richardson’s feminine expression, empowering and badass, but her feminine qualities should not outshine her athletic feats. I cannot help but feel a sense of pride to see women with jewelry on and bulging muscles. Sports have been a hyper masculine field for a long time and fighting it with hyper femininity seems quite fitting, yet I understand that it is likely a result of patriarchal and heteronormative standards. Female athletes who have gotten pregnant, given birth and returned to their sport at an elite level are also extremely empowering to me because this is an extraordinary athletic accomplishment and because it feels liberating that these women do not feel the need to put their careers on hold to raise a family. However, conversations often highlight these athletes as mothers rather than strong, capable people. Women can be strong without also proving that they can also uphold traditional roles as wives and mothers. For this reason, I find confidence and physical liberation so appealing, it requires women owning their abilities and bulking. It is unproblematic but revolutionary. If fake eyelashes, purple hair, or acrylic nails gives women the confidence they need then do it. For me, styling my hair in the popular bubble braid before every soccer game has become a ritual for me, I have found that rolling my shorts once and pulling my socks just above my knees is the perfect ratio of cool and cute. There is a large range of bodies, and we need to stop putting limits on the potential these bodies hold.
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